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The history of Pharoanic Egypt spans nearly three millennia, during which
time significant accomplishments were achieved during three main periods
that Egyptologists refer to as the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms. Lasting
roughly for around 500 years, 200 years and 500 years respectively, these
periods were interrupted by the "intermediate periods", where loss of
central authority, control or foreign invasion led to decline.
The ancient Egyptian civilisation changed
dramatically throughout the course of these years, and many of these
changes are reflected in how the tombs of the Kings and Queens, nobleman
and workers were built and decorated.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE ROYAL TOMBS:
| Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic
tombs: |
Abydos was the burial place for the
pre-dynastic kings and the first kings of a unified Egypt. The
pre-dynastic cemetery of el-Amra at Abydos contains hundreds of
graves dating from all pre-dynastic phases and contains several
hundred graves and offering pits. Of particular importance is tomb
"U-j", a large, brick-lined shallow rectangular pit hewn out of the
bedrock and divided by cross-walls into a series of 12 chambers. It still contained much funerary equipment and
included large amounts of Egyptian pottery, and around 150 labels of
ivory or bone. Royal graves at Abydos gradually became more
sophisticated. The last and largest royal tomb to be built there was
for Khasekhemwy, the last king of the 2nd Dynasty.
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| The Mastaba: |
This was the earliest and simplest
tomb super-structure, consisting of a single elevated rectangular platform
and built of mud-brick. The tomb below would usually be divided into
chambers, used for the placement of the body and possessions of the
deceased. They were not particularly elaborate and
were not usually decorated.
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| The Step Pyramid: |
The first pyramid funerary complex designed
and built by Imhotep for the 3rd Dynasty pharaoh Djoser. Developed initially from the earlier rectangular mastaba tombs, the step pyramid was gradually extended and elaborated
until it became a superstructure. Made of six giant steps, it contains
many chambers, including a heb-sed court.
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| True Pyramids: |
The Step Pyramid was the first all
stone monument and was, of course, the inspiration for the true
pyramids that followed, beginning with Snefru's 4th Dynasty pyramids
at Meidum and Dahshur (the bent pyramid) and progressing onto the
first true pyramid, the "red pyramid" at Dahshur. These
amazing achievements culminated into the greatest stone buildings of
all time - the pyramids of Giza, and in particular the great pyramid
of Khufu. They were the major achievements of the 4th dynasty.
The origins and subsequent evolution of the pyramid
complex can be seen in the royal tombs and funerary enclosures at
Early Dynastic Abydos and the step pyramid at Saqqara.
Because the pharaoh was revered as a god, his tomb was constructed
to last forever, and to ensure the continuing prosperity of the
pharaoh in his afterlife. Like the early mastabas, the 4th dynasty
pyramids had no decorations.
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| 5th and 6th Dynasty Pyramids: |
During the Old Kingdom's 5th and 6th
dynasty, the scale and construction of the pyramid changed
dramatically. The last ruler of the 5th Dynasty, Unas, seems to have
been the first to inscribe the pyramid texts on the internal walls
of his pyramid. These took the form of hieroglyphic writings
providing guidelines and instructions on how to ensure safe voyage
through the nether world and the eternal life thereafter.
The standard of workmanship in pyramid building declined along
with the political and economic structure of the Old Kingdom.
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| First Intermediate Period: |
The construction of pyramid tombs
had all but disappeared during the First Intermediate Period.
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| Middle Kingdom Pyramids: |
The form of the pyramid complex was
revived once more during the Middle Kingdom by the 12th Dynasty
pharaoh Amenemhet I. Pyramids
were built with a stone core and a framework of rough blocks, filled with a combination of mudbrick,
debris and sand. An outer facing of fine tufa limestone created a finished effect not unlike the great stone pyramids of the Old
Kingdom. However the use of mudbrick construction is a problem
with regard to preservation, and once the outer casing
of limestone had been removed, the pyramid would deteriorate badly. As such, most Middle Kingdom pyramids today resemble little more than heaps of rubble.
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| The New Kingdom tombs: |
A very different approach was taken
to tomb building during the New Kingdom phase. Very elaborate, deep
rock-cut underground tombs became popular. Part of the reason for
this change was to attempt to conceal the locations of the tombs
from robbers. This period of ancient Egyptian history saw perhaps
the most glorious tombs of all - highly decorated with scenes of the
journey that the deceased would take as they transcended from this
life to the afterlife. The introduction of complex funerary texts,
such as The Book of the Dead were introduced into the tombs, and
included richly coloured and graphically detailed representations of
the deceased's journey. Each tomb could look dramatically
different as experimentation with a variety of different styles was
undertaken.
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THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES:
The noblemen - usually the high ranking government
officials, royal scribes and high priests, had decidedly more modest
tombs than their royal leaders. Initially the portrayal of the afterlife
in the company of gods was reserved solely for the pharaoh, and so the
noblemen's tombs were generally decorated with scenes that represented
everyday Egyptian life. Gradually, as the ideal of the Egyptian religion
became available to all, religious scenes began to pervade the private
tomb paintings. Interestingly, private tombs can also often reflect the
subtle differences in the style of art favoured by the current pharaoh -
what was "in vogue" at that time.
These tombs offer an captivating insight into the
daily activities and events that were important to, or played a part in,
the lives of the individuals concerned.
| 1st Dynasty burials: |
Craftsmens, artists and dependents
in the royal household were usually buried near their king.
Constructed in long lines adjoining one another, these tombs were
oblong pits or chambers where the bodies were placed wrapped in
linen. Around them dishes containing food and jars of wine, as well
as the tools of their trade were also included in the burial. The
pits would then be roofed over with timber and a low, rectangular
structure would be built of rubble above.
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| The Mastaba: |
During the Old Kingdom period,
nobles
were often buried in mastabas. These mastabas were decorated with
non-religious scenes depicting the daily life and official duties of
the deceased. Of particular note, are the 6th Dynasty Old Kingdom
mastaba at Saqqara which contain beautiful and revealing scenes: men
force-feeding geese, cattle crossing a canal, men dragging a statue
on a sled to the tomb. The best-known of these tombs are those of
Meruruka, Ti, Kagemni, Niankhkhum and Khnumhotep the "two brothers", and Ptahhotep.
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| Middle Kingdom through to the New
Kingdom tombs of the Nobles: |
During the Middle Kingdom, and
progressively through into the New Kingdom period, the introduction
of a more socially equal ideal of the state religion became more
customary. The rock-cut tombs of the nobles continued to depict
their daily activities, but now included scenes with strong
religious overtones. Ordinary Egyptians had the right to expect that
they too would be judged worthy, and just like pharaoh, they could
also make it safely through the arduous voyage to the afterlife.
Tomb decoration probably reached it zenith during the New Kingdom.
The tombs of the Nobles are beautifully decorated with such scenes.
Unlike the royal tombs, which follow a specific funerary theme, the
private tombs' decorations often break with convention, and as such
can be artistically more pleasing. |
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The private New Kingdom tombs on the West Bank at
Luxor are referred to as being T-shaped, particularly those located on
the slopes of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna in the area known as the Tombs of the
Nobles. An entrance corridor or a courtyard leads into a wide vestibule,
and another short corridor that leads into a long chapel, often with a
small niche at its rear.
TOMBS OF THE WORKERS:
| Pre-dynastic and Early Dynastic
burials: |
The working class and peasant people
had very simple graves. Their tombs usually consisted of an oval or
rectangular shaped pit where the body was placed, sometimes on a
reed mat, in a contracted position, surrounded by their earthly
possessions. These pits were then roofed with branches and matting
that would support the mound of sand and rubble that was piled above
it.
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| Tombs of the pyramid builders at
Giza: |
Recent excavations near the valley
temple have uncovered more of this vast city of workers who built
and maintained the pyramids for generations afterwards. The average
age at death of the workmen was very early, 30 to 35 years, and all
the skeletons of both men and women showed signs of stress in their
backs. Mummification was reserved for royalty and nobility only.
The tombs come in a variety of forms: stepped domes, beehives, and
gabled roofs. The domes covered simple rectangular
grave pits, following the configuration of the pyramids in an
extremely simplified form. One small tomb featured a miniature ramp
leading up and around its dome, whilst other tombs resemble
miniature mastabas with tiny courtyards and stone false doors with
the names and titles of the deceased inscribed on them.
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| New Kingdom tombs
of the workers at Deir el-Medina, Thebes: |
Probably the best known examples of
the New Kingdom worker's tombs are to be found at Deir el-Medina in
the "worker's village". These were the craftsmen and artisans who
were responsible for building the nearby royal tombs, who were
afforded the luxury of being able to build and decorate their very
own "house of eternity". Consisting of a vaulted chamber hewn out of
the rock with a mudbrick lining, with maybe an antechamber and a
storeroom, the tombs were small and restricted. Despite the lack of
space however, these 19th Dynasty tombs show an incredible diversity
in their decorations. Probably the most famous of these, and whose
tomb decorations are the by far the most reproduced, is that of
Sennedjem, "servant in the place of truth." The pictures in his tomb
are fresh and spontaneous and almost perfectly intact, and are
considered to be the most beautiful within the necropolis. |
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